3D/4D printed bio-piezoelectric smart scaffolds for next-generation bone tissue engineering

Abstract Piezoelectricity in native bones has been well recognized as the key factor bone regeneration. Thus, bio-piezoelectric materials have gained substantial attention repairing damaged by mimicking tissue’s electrical microenvironment (EM). However, traditional manufacturing strategies still encounter limitations creating personalized scaffolds, hindering their clinical applications. Three-dimensional (3D)/four-dimensional (4D) printing technology based on principle of layer-by-layer forming and stacking discrete demonstrated outstanding advantages fabricating scaffolds a more complex-shaped structure. Notably, 4D functionality-shifting can provide time-dependent programmable tissue EM response to external stimuli for In this review, we first summarize physicochemical properties commonly used (including polymers, ceramics, composites) representative biological findings Then, discuss latest research advances 3D terms feedstock selection, process, induction strategies, potential Besides, some related challenges such scalability, resolution, stress-to-polarization conversion efficiency, non-invasive ability after implantation put forward. Finally, highlight shape/property/functionality-shifting smart engineering (BTE). Taken together, review emphasizes appealing utility 3D/4D printed piezoelectric next-generation BTE implants.